第13週 (4-5、5-0翻譯)

4-5 How Might Genetic Engineering Affect Evolution?遺傳基因的工程學可能如何影響進化？
We Have Developed Two Ways to Change the Genetic Traits of Population
我們發展了二種方式改變人口基因特徵
We have used artificial selection to change the genetic characteristics of populations with
with similar genes. In this process, we select one or more desirable genetic traits in the
population of a plant or animal, such as a type of wheat, fruit, or dog. Then we use selective breeding to end up with populations of the species containing large number of individuals with the desired traits. Note that artificial selection involves crossbreeding between genetic varieties of the same species and thus is not a form of speciation.
Artificial selection has yielded food crops with higher yields, cows that give more milk, trees that grow faster, and many different types of dogs and cats. But traditional crossbreeding is a slow process. Also, it can combine traits only from species that are close to one another genetically.
Now scientists are using genetic engineering to speed up our ability to manipulate genes. Genetic engineering, or gene splicing, is the alteration of an organism’s genetic material, through adding, deleting, or changing segments of its DNA, to produce desirable traits or eliminate undesirable ones. It enables scientists to transfer genes between different species that would not interbreed in nature. For example, genes from a fish species can be put into a tomato plant to give it certain properties.
The resulting organisms are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or transgenic organisms. Figure 4-8 outlines the steps involved in developing a genetically modified plant.
Compared to traditional crossbreeding, gene splicing takes about half as much time to develop a new crop or animal variety. It also enables us to transfer genes from different types of species without breeding them-a process that both holds great promise and raises a number of legal, ethical, and environmental issues.
Scientists have used gene splicing to develop modified crop plants, new drugs, pest-resistant plants, and animals that grow rapidly. They have also created genetically engineered bacteria to extract minerals such as copper from their underground ores and to clean up spills of oil and other toxic pollutants.
Bioengineers have developed many beneficial GMOs: chickens that lay low-cholesterol eggs, wheat rot on the way to market, and tomatoes with genes that thrives in drought conditions, bananas that don’t that can help prevent some types of cancer.
Genetic engineers have also produced two mice, the Schwarzenegger mouse, which has muscle-building genes, and the marathon mouse, which never seems to tire. And they are in hot pursuit of a Methuselah mouse that can live much longer than a conventional mouse.


我們已經用人工選擇改變遺傳特性的人群 類似的基因。在這個過程中，我們選擇一個或多個可取的遺傳特徵在 人口的植物或動物，如類型的小麥，水果，或狗。然後，我們使用選育，結束了人口的物種含有大量的個人理想的特徵。請注意，人工選擇涉及雜交品種間的遺傳相同的物種，因而不是一種形態。
人工選擇已產生與糧食作物產量更高，牛給更多的牛奶使樹木生長速度更快，許多不同類型的狗和貓。但是，傳統的雜交育種是一個緩慢的進程。此外，它可以結合性狀只能從物種，已接近彼此的基因。
如今，科學家正在利用基因工程，加快我們的能力來操縱基因。基因工程或基因接合，是改變一個生物體的遺傳物質，通過增加，刪除或改變部分的DNA ，生產理想的特性或消除不理想的。它使科學家之間的轉移基因的不同物種，不會雜交的性質。例如，基因從魚種可放入番茄工廠給它的某些特性。
由此產生的生物體被稱為轉基因生物體（生物體）或轉基因生物。圖4-8列出的步驟在發展轉基因植物。
與傳統的雜交育種相比，基因剪接約需多半的時間開發一種新的作物或動物品種。它還使我們能夠轉移基因的不同類型的物種繁殖它們，每一個過程，都擁有很大的希望，並提出了一些法律，道德和環境等問題。
科學家們利用基因拼接開發改良作物，新的藥物，抗蟲植物和動物的迅速增長。他們還建立轉基因細菌中提取礦物質，像銅從地下礦石和清理洩漏的石油和其他有毒污染物。
生物學家已經開發了許多有益的轉基因生物：雞奠定低膽固醇雞蛋，小麥根腐病的方式推向市場，和西紅柿與基因，生長在乾旱條件下，香蕉沒有，可以幫助防止某些類型的癌症。
遺傳的工程師也生產了兩隻老鼠，史瓦辛格鼠，這增強肌肉的基因，以及馬拉松鼠，好像不會疲勞。以及他們可以比一隻傳統的老鼠更久地生活的一隻瑪土撒拉鼠的熱追蹤裡。

We are rapidly improving our understanding of genes .what they do .and how to modify them.
我們正在迅速改善我們了解的基因。他們所做的事情。以及如何修改它們。

A genome is an organism’s entire set of genes
病毒基因是一個有機體的整個基因組。

At the beginning of this century. Scientists completed the mapping of the human genome.
在本世紀初。科學家繪製完成的人類基因組中。

Our rapidly increasing understanding of the human genome and those of other organisms means that we are becoming capable of genetically modifying ourselves by cutting out. rearranging. And adding various snippets of our own DNA molecules and implanting DNA sequences from other organisms .
我們的迅速增加了解人類基因組和其他生物手段，我們正在成為能夠改變自己的基因通過削減了。重新安排。並添加各種片段我們自己的DNA分子和DNA序列植入其他生物。

This secondary evolution will allow us to change the course and speed of primary evolution of our own species and other species by creating types of genes not currently found in the rest of nature.
這二次進化使我們能夠改變的過程和速度的主要發展我們自己的物種和其他物種的創造類型的基因目前尚未發現其他性質

Application of such increasing genetic knowledge holds great promise. but it raises some serious and controversial ethical and privacy issues
這樣的應用越來越多的遺傳知識擁有很大的希望。但它引起了一些嚴重的和有爭議的道德和隱私問題

For example some people have genes that make them more likely to develop certain genetic diseases or disorders
例如有些人的基因，使它們更可能發展的某些遺傳性疾病或失調

We now have the power to detect these genetic deficiencies. even before birth
我們現在有能力來檢測這些遺傳缺陷。在出生之前就存在

Will this lead to more abortions of genetically defective?
這將導致更多的人工流產的基因缺陷

Will health insurers refuse people with certain genetic defects that could lead to health problems?
將健康保險的人拒絕與某些基因缺陷可能導致的健康問題

Will employers refuse to hire them?
將雇主拒絕僱用他們

If gene therapy is developed for correcting genetic deficiencies who will get it?
如果基因療法開發，以糾正基因的缺陷誰會怎麼做呢？

Will it be reserved mostly for the rich?
將它保留主要為富人？

Soon we may enter the age of designer babies where people can walk into fertility clinics and choose the traits they want in their offspring from a genetic shopping list
我們不久可能進入歲的設計師的嬰兒，人們可以走進生育診所，並選擇他們想要的特性在他們的後代從遺傳的購物清單

Will some want to use these new tools to create geniuses people who are superior musicians or people with great beauty?
一些將要使用這些新工具創造天才的人誰是卓越的音樂家和人民懷著極大的美？

Will generals and athletic coaches want to create superior soldiers and athletes?
將將軍和體育教練要創建優秀士兵和運動員？

Will one gender be chosen more often and how will this affect population growth. marriage opportunities. and other social interactions?
將一種性別選擇更經常地，以及如何將這種影響的人口增長。結婚的機會。和其他社會交往？

How will this affect the ratios of minorities in societies?
如何將這一比率影響的少數民族社會

Will such modifications be reserved mostly for the rich?
這些修改將保留大部分用於豐富

For the first time it appears that we may have the power to change the nature of what it means to be human but what should we change human nature to ?
第一次覺得，我們可能有能力改變的性質意味著什麼人權，但我們應如何改變人類的本性，以

These are some of the most important and controversial questions of the 21ST century
這些都是一些最重要的和有爭議的問題在21世紀.?


5-0
Why is one area of the earth's land surface a desert, another a grassland, and another a forest? The general answer is differences in climates.為什麼一個地區的地球陸地面積的沙漠，另一個草原和森林的另一個？一般的回答是不同的氣候。
Wind is an important factor in the earth's climate. Without wind, the tropics would be unbearably hot and most of the rest of the planet would freeze.
風是一個重要的因素地球的氣候。無風，熱帶地區將是不可忍受的熱點和大多數其他行星將凍結。
Wind also transport nutrients from one place to another. For example, winds carry dust rich in phosphates and iron across the Atlantic from the Sahara Desert in Africa (Figure 5-1). These deposits help build agricultural soils in the Bahamas and supply nutrients for plants in upper canopies of rain forests in Brazil. Dust blown from China's Gobi Desert deposits iron into the Pacific Ocean betweenHawaii and Alaska. The iron stimulates the growth of phytoplankton, the minute producers that support ocean food webs.風運輸養分也從一個地方運送到另一個地方。例如，在非洲撒哈拉大沙漠的風攜帶的沙塵富含的磷和鐵到大西洋彼岸（圖5-1 ） 。這些基礎幫助巴哈馬群島建立農業土壤和巴西供應植物養分的熱帶雨林。吹塵從中國的戈壁沙漠存款鐵到太平洋的夏威夷和阿拉斯加。鐵能刺激浮游生物生長，每分鐘生產，支持海洋食物網。
Wind also has a downside. Wind-blown dust storms in the Sahara Desert have increased tenfold since 1950 mostly because of drought due to climate change, and human population growth. Another reason is the SUV connection. Increasing numbers of four-wheel vehicles speeding over the sand break the desert's surface crust. Wind storms can then blow the dusty material into the atmosphere.
風也有缺點。風沙塵暴的撒哈拉大沙漠已經增加了十倍自1950年以來，主要是因為乾旱因氣候變化和人類人口的增長。另一個原因是SUV的連接。越來越多的四輪汽車超速沙子打破了沙漠表面的地殼。風就可以風暴打擊塵土飛揚的物質到大氣中。
Wind also transport harmful substances. Particles of reddish-brown soil and pesticides banned in the United Sates are blown from Africa's desert and eroding farmlands into the sky over the U.S. state of Florida. Some types of fungi in this dust may play a role in degrading or killing coral reefs in the Florida Keys and in the Caribbean.
風也有害物質的運輸。粒子的紅褐色的土壤和農藥禁止在美國是摧毀從非洲的沙漠侵蝕農田的上空，美國佛羅里達州。有些種類的真菌在這灰塵可發揮作用，有辱人格或殺害珊瑚礁在佛羅里達群島和加勒比地區。
Particles of iron-rich dust from Africa that enhance the productivity of algae have been linked to outbreaks of toxic algal blooms—referred to as red tides—in Florida's coastal waters. People who eat shellfish contaminated by a toxin produced in red tides can become paralyded or even die. These red tides can also cause fish kills.
粒子富含鐵的來自非洲的灰塵，提高生產力的藻類已經聯繫爆發有毒赤潮，被稱為赤潮在佛羅里達州的沿海水域。人們誰吃污染的貝類毒素的產生赤潮可以成為paralyded或什至死亡。這些赤潮也可能造成魚類死亡。
Dust and long-lived air pollutands from rapidly industrializing China and central Asia are blown across the Pacific Ocean and degrade air guality over parts of the western United States. Asian pollution makes up as much as 10% of West Coast smog—a problem that is expected to intensifi as China continues to industrialize.
迅速工業化的中國和中亞從空中粉塵和長時間污染是摧毀整個太平洋和降低空氣質量超過部分的美國西部。亞洲污染使得高達10 ％的西岸煙霧問題，預計將作為中國加強繼續工業化生產。
The ecological lesson: There is no away because everything is connected. Wind acts as part of the planet's circulatory system for heat, moisture, plant nutrients, and long-lived pollutants. Movement of soil particles from one place to another by wind and water is a natural phenomenon. However, when we disturb the soil and leave it unprotected, we hasten and intensify this process.
生態教訓：沒有，因為一切聯繫。風行為的一部分，這個星球上的血液循環系統的熱量，水分，植物養分，而且壽命長的污染物。運動的土壤顆粒從一個地方到另一個地方的風和水是一種自然現象。然而，當我們破壞了土壤和留下它保護的，我們加快和加強這一進程。
In this chapter, we examine the key role that climate, including wind, plays in the formation of the deserts, grasslands, forests, oceans, rivers, and lakes that provide habitats for the earth's terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity.
在這一章中，我們審查的關鍵作用，氣候，包括風能，發揮中形成的沙漠，草原，森林，海洋，河流和湖泊，提供棲息地，為地球的陸地和水生生物多樣性。

第12週(4-2～4-4 重點 影片：全球大滅絕之謎)

生物集群滅絕

生物集群滅絕是指在一個相對短暫的地質時段中，在一個以上地理區域範圍內，數量眾多的生物突然死亡，從而造成生物物種數短時間突然下降。
生物集群滅絕要滿足四個條件：
量值：達到具有實質意義的絕滅量值。
廣度：具有全球範圍內的廣度。
幅度：涉及廣泛的不同分類單元。
時續：限於相對短暫的地質時隔。
造成生物集群滅絕的可能原因很多，如地外星體撞擊地球、火山活動、氣候變冷或變暖、海進或海退（海平面上升或下降）和缺氧等都曾有學者提出，但目前仍未有完全的定論。每次大的滅絕事件，都能在相對短時期內造成80％-90％以上的物種滅絕。但是，少數生命力或逃逸能力強的物種能夠忍受災變造成的極端惡劣的環境，或逃離災區至異地避難而留存下來。同時，災變引起的環境變化也給新物種的誕生創造了條件和機遇。大滅絕期間倖存的和新生的物種在滅絕事件後開始復甦和發展，並進而開創生物演化的新篇章，因此每次全球性的滅絕事件後，都伴隨著生物的復甦和發展。
根據化石記錄，地質歷史上曾發生過5次大的生物集群滅絕事件，即奧陶紀末期、泥盆紀末期、二疊紀末期、三疊紀末期和白堊紀末期的生物大規模絕滅。白堊紀-第三紀滅絕事件因恐龍的滅絕而受到關注，不過二疊紀生物絕滅事件卻是規模最大、涉及生物類群最多、影響最為深遠的一次。

相關影片：

第11週(4-1 關鍵字解釋 影片：Natural Selection)

4-1 What Is Biologic Evolution and How Does It Occur?

關鍵字--
biological evolution:生物演化
evolution theory:進化論
fossils:化石
mutation:突變
natural selection:天擇
adaption:適應性
adaptive trait:適應特徵
differential reproduction:讓個體伴隨其性狀能保留比其他物種更多的後代
coevolution:共演化

相關影片
Natural Selection

第十週(4-0 溫室效應簡介 影片： Degrees Warmer: Mass Extinction?)

全球暖化指的是在一段時間中，地球的大氣和海洋溫度上升的現象，主要是指人為因素造成的溫度上升。原因很可能是由於溫室氣體排放過多造成。
在20世紀，全球平均接近地面的大氣層溫度上升了攝氏0.6度。普遍來說，科學界發現過去50年可觀察的氣候改變的速度是過去100年的雙倍，有理由認為該時期的氣候改變是由人類活動所推動。
二氧化碳和其他溫室氣體的含量不斷增加。正是全球變暖的人為因素中主要部分。燃燒化石燃料、清理林木和耕作等等都增強了溫室效應。第一次懷疑溫室效應會發生的觀測是瑞典化學家阿累尼烏斯在1897年所做的。雖然當時沒有引發公眾討論，但自1980年代後開始引發公眾關注。

相關影片：